1 The research outline presented here is part of the studies of H. Badamchi (University of Tehran, hbadamchi@ut.ac.ir) as an Alexander von Humboldt fellow at Goethe-Universität in 2017/2018 and 2019. The authors held a joint seminar “Altorientalisches Handels- und Gesellschaftsrecht” in the summer semester 2019 and would like to thank the participants for the lively discussion. See also Badamchi, H., Law in a Multicultural Society: Akkadian Legal Texts from Susa in Comparative Perspective, Elamica: Contributions on History and Culture of Elam and its Neighbouring Regions, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz 2018, 3–12.

2 Abbreviations: AUCT 4 = Sigrist, M., Old Babylonian Account Texts in the Horn Archaeology Museum, Andrews University cuneiform texts 4, Berrien Springs, Mich.: Andrews University Press 1990; HG 6 = Koschaker P. / Ungnad A., Hammurabi's Gesetz, Bd. VI, Leipzig, Pfeiffer 1923; MDP 18 = Dossin, G., Autres textes sumériens et accadiens, Paris 1927; MDP 22 = Scheil, V., Actes juridiques susiens, Paris 1930; MDP 23 = Scheil, V., Actes juridiques susiens (Suite: n°166 à n°327), Paris 1932; MDP 24 = Scheil, V., Actes juridiques susiens (Suite: n°328 à 395), Paris 1933; MDP 28 = Scheil, V., Mélanges épigraphiques, Paris 1939.

3 Badamchi, H., Lease of Agricultural Land: Three Old Elamite Contracts from the Sukkalmah Period, Journal of Iranian Studies, University of Tehran, 2, 2012, 1: 21–38 (in Persian).

4 The traditional references of ancient legal comparison have mainly been Greek and – in the first line – Roman law: a fact due to the academic background of scholars as Paul Koschaker, cf. Pfeifer, G., Juristische Domäne oder Hilfswissenschaft? Keilschriftrechtsgeschichte 1914/2014, in: Fachbereich Rechtswissenschaft der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main (Hrsg.), 100 Jahre Rechtswissenschaft in Frankfurt. Erfahrungen, Herausforderungen, Erwartungen, Frankfurt am Main 2014, (409–419), 411–413.

5 Schacht, J., From Babylonian to Islamic Law, Yearbook of Islamic & Middle Eastern Law, 1: 29–33 (a translation of Vom babylonischen zum islamischen Recht, Orientalistische Literaturzeitung 30, 1927, 664–669).

6 Schacht, From Babylonian to Islamic Law (fn. 5), 31.

7 Mallat, C., Introduction to Middle Eastern Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007, 18. Crone, P., Roman, Provincial, and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate, Cambridge University Press 1987, 1–17, was a strong advocate of studying Islamic law within the Near Eastern context; however, cuneiform law was not accessible to her.

8 Jackson, B.S., Essays in Jewish and Comparative Legal History, Leiden: Brill 1975, 8.

9 Jackson, Essays (fn. 8), 14.

10 Pfeifer, G., Fortschritt auf Umwegen: Umgehung und Fiktion in Rechtsurkunden des Altertums, München: C.H. Beck 2013, 3.

11 As an example of such studies see Badamchi, H., Usurpation of Agricultural Land and Codex Ur-Namma, 39, Akkadica 138, 2017, 81–188.

12 Potts, D.T., The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State, 2nd edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2016, 5–9.

13 Later renamed as Délégation Archéologique Française en Iran.

14 The original tablets in the National Museum of Iran (in Tehran) have been studied by H. Badamchi and it is intended to study the remaining tablets in the Louvre Museum in order to prepare updated editions and translations which are indispensable to legal historical work on this collection. For the work done so far, see under Badamchi in the bibliography in the footnotes.

15 Eilers, W., Gesellschaftsformen im altbabylonischen Recht, Leipzig: T. Weicher 1931.

16 Eilers, Gesellschaftsformen (fn. 15), 36 f.

17 Szlechter, É., Le contrat de société en Babylonie, en Grèce et à Rome: étude de droit comparé de l'Antiquité, Paris: Librairie du recueil Sirey 1947.

18 Dole, G.F., Partnership Loans in the Old Babylonian Period, PhD Dissertation, Harvard University 1965.

19 Eilers, Gesellschaftsformen (fn. 15), 20–25; Szlechter, Le contrat (fn. 17), 28–32.

20 Koschaker, HG 6, 38.

21 The idea of an “archetypal” Realvertrag as a basic type of record seems paradigmatic for the influence of the Roman law system of obligations, cf. fn. 4.

22 Driver, G.R. and J.C. Miles, the Babylonian Laws, vol. 1 : Legal Commentary, Oxford: Clarendon Press 1956, 187

23 Stol, M., Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft in Altbabylonischer Zeit, in: D. Charpin, D.O. Edzard, and M. Stol, Mesopotamien: Die altbabylonische Zeit, Fribourg: Academic Press 2004, (643–977), 881.

24 If we assume that the investor does not bear the loss since there is clause regarding the loss, by the same logic we must also assume that the investor does not share in the profit since there is no clause regarding the profit. And this would make a partnership contract devoid of meaning. Such contracts as quoted above would only make sense if we assume that there existed a basic understanding of partnership (CH gap cc).

25 Liverani, M., The Near East: The Bronze Age, in: J.G. Manning and I. Morris (eds.), The Ancient Economy: Evidence and Models, Stanford: Stanford University Press 2005, 47–57.

26 For a list of the sources in Arabic, see Wakin, J.A., Muḍāraba, Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, 7, 1993, 284–285.

27 For the liability of local authorities see Badamchi, H., Old Babylonian International Law and Protection of Merchants. Responsibility of Local Ruler for Robbery, ZAR 19, 2013, 59–78.

28 Badamchi, H., Old Elamite Partnership Contracts: Reading Two Akkadian Documents from the Sukkalmah Period, Journal of Historical Researches of Iran and Islam, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, 14, 2015, 21–36 (in Persian).

29 Westbrook, R., Property and the Family in Biblical Law. Sheffield: JSOT Press 1991, 127.

30 Klíma, J., Untersuchungen zum elamischen Erbrecht, Archív Orientální 28, 1960, (5–54), 48.

31 Koschaker, P., Fratriarchat, Hausgemeinschaft und Mutterrecht in Keilschriftrechten, Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 41, 1933, (1–89), 51.

32 The application of Koschaker's theory to the Nuzi material was already criticized by Skaist, A., The Authority of the Brother at Arrapha and Nuzi, Journal of the American Oriental Society 89, 1969, 10– 17.

33 Including the differentiation against similar phenomena, e.g. the Nuzi sale adoption with its character of circumvention; cf. Pfeifer, Fortschritt (fn. 10), 23–62. The figure of a “nachgeformtes Rechtsgeschäft” – originally described by Ernst Rabel – may be taken into account as well; cf. Pfeifer, Fortschritt (fn. 10), 1 f.

34 Watt, W.M., Muhammad at Medina, Oxford: Clarendon Press 1956, 249.

35 Veenhof, K.R., Trade with the blessing of Šamaš in Old Babylonian Sippar, in: J.G. Dercksen (ed.), Assyria and Beyond: Studies Presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen, Leiden: NINO 2004, 551–582.

36 Probably should be read Nahhunte, the Elamite sun-god, see Stolper, M.W., Nahhunte, RlA 9, 1998– 2001, 82–84.

37 Szlechter, É., Tablettes juridiques de la 1ère dynastie de Babylone conservées au Musée d'Art et d'Histoire de Genève, Paris 1958, 125, MAH 16.351

38 pāqirānu/bāqirānum claimant; izuzzum/ uzuzzum to stand, accept liability for.

39 Compare with the similar phrase in MDP 22, 181, line 18: it-ti šà-al-mi ù ki-ni i-li-iq-qí.

40 The partnership might be for a business trip since it mentions the high way robbery.

41 Because this is a business transaction, and debt cancellation decrees do not apply to business transactions.